in 1821 the United States was shocked to see an outburst of partisanship develop in Congress, partially due to growing political divisions, but also because there was no obvious Presidential successor to James Monroe. This is more curious as the Federalists ceased to exist as a viable opposition during the Madison presidency. Monroe was perturbed by the displays of partisanship and wrote to Madison on the issue.

Thomas Jefferson was a shrewd and calculating political operator who manipulated the media of the day to his political ends while maintaining anonymity.

There was also growing ideological divisions between the Hamiltonian and Jeffersonian view of an American future. This divide manifested itself as the Federalist and Republican parties.

This split led to many famous historical incidents such as Jefferson ending up the Vice President to the Federalist John Adams. The later Presidential tie between Jefferson and Aaron Burr, which ultimately fell in Jefferson's behaviour and the duel between Burr and Hamilton which resulted in Hamilton's death.

The successor for Jefferson as President was James Madison who had been the Secretary of State in the Administration. Madison oversaw the war of 1812 which eventually led to the fraying of Federalist support and left the US a one party state at the end of Madison's second term.

Monroe had been Madison's Secretary of State and through the electoral college became President essentially unopposed. In Monroe's first term there appeared the Old Republicans who were heavily states rights oriented and conservative.

They mainly made their effect known on the military budget. Federal government was exceptionally smaller back then, way smaller than the size of government we take for granted today.

For example in modern dollars the GDP in 1818 was $11.95 billion . The total budget at the time was $25.5 million in 1818 dollars with nearly 8 million spent on defence. The Old Republicans chopped that defence budget in half.

The other source of partisanship in Monroe's second term was that there was no strong successor to the Presidency. Consequently several members of the Administration and Congress took anti-administration stances to differentiate themselves in the political groups that influenced the electoral college.

Most one-party systems survive on the lack of dissent when passing on the mantle to the next leader. Monroe thought a unified non-party American could still exist. Harry Ammon records;

We have undoubtedly reached a new epoch in our political career, which has been formed by the destruction of the federal party [Federalists] ... by the general peace, and the entire absence of all cause, as to public measures, for great political excitement, and in truth, by the real prosperity of the Union.

In such a state of things it might have been presumed that the movement would have been tranquil, marked by common effort to promote the public good in every line to which the powers of the general government extended.

It is my fixed opinion that this will be the result after some short interval, and that the restless and disturbed state of the Commonwealth, like the rolling of the waves after a storm, tho' worse than the storm itself, will subside, and leave the ship in perfect security.

Surely our government may get on and prosper without the existence of parties. I have always considered their existence as the curse of the country, of which we had sufficient proof, more especially in the late war. Besides, how keep them alive, and in action?

The causes which exist in other countries do not here. We have no distinct orders.

Madison's view of partisanship, or factionalism, is covered in detail by Federalist No.10 in the Federalist Papers. Madison wrote that the only way to stop factionalism is to stamp out liberty, which he believed was worse than removing factionalism from politics.

Consequently he sees it as a messy, albeit likely, outcome of free government. Madison's take on it is that the political system of government should be structured to stop factionalism becoming a destructive force. For this he proposed a representative system with separation of powers and checks and balances.

Madison replied to Monroe's letter, again recorded by Harry Ammon, with;

There seems to be a propensity in free governments, which will always find or make subjects, on which human opinion and passions may be thrown into conflict. The most, perhaps, that can be counted on, and that will be sufficient is, that the occasions for party contests ... will either be so slight or so transient, as not to threaten any permanent or dangerous consequences to the character and prosperity of the Republic.

Jefferson also had an opinion on the issue which he wrote about in a letter to Albert Gallatin in 1822;

You are told indeed that there are no longer parties among us, that they are all now amalgamated in peace, the lion and the lamb lie down together in peace. Do not believe a word of it, the same parties exist now as ever did. No longer indeed under the name of Republicans and Federalists. The latter name was extinguished in the Battle of Orleans.

Those who wore it finding monarchism a desperate wish in this country, are rallying to what they deem the next best point, a consolidated government. Although this is not yet avowed (as that of monarchism, you know, never was) it exists decidedly and is the true key to the debates in Congress, wherein you see many, calling themselves Republicans, and preaching the rankest doctrines of the old Federalists.

One of the candidates is presumed to be of this party, the other a Republican of the old school, and a friend to the barrier of state rights, as provided in the constitution against the barriers of consolidation ...

Jefferson's words are more extreme than necessary but he is politically acute enough to pick the partisanship that was prevalent, and like Madison suggested a "propensity of free government".

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More Reading on James monroe

• James Monroe
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• Thomas Jefferson
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• Three US Presidents on Partisanship